Cost Drivers in Selecting an Underpinning Solution

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A pile or piling is a vertical structural element of a deep foundation, driven or drilled deep into the ground at the building site. A deep foundation is a type of foundation that transfers building loads to the earth farther down from the surface than a shallow foundation does to a subsurface layer or a range of depths.

There are many reasons that a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, such as for a skyscraper. Some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a poor soil at shallow depth, or site constraints like property lines. There are different terms used to describe different types of deep foundations including the pile (which is analogous to a pole), the pier (which is analogous to a column), drilled shafts, and caissons. Piles are generally driven into the ground in situ; other deep foundations are typically put in place using excavation and drilling. The naming conventions may vary between engineering disciplines and firms. Deep foundations can be made out of timber, steel, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.

Prefabricated piles are driven into the ground using a pile driver. Driven piles are constructed of wood, reinforced concrete, or steel. Wooden piles are made from the trunks of tall trees. Concrete piles are available in square, octagonal, and round cross-sections (like Franki piles). They are reinforced with rebar and are often prestressed. Steel piles are either pipe piles or some sort of beam section (like an H-pile). Historically, wood piles used splices to join multiple segments end-to-end when the driven depth required was too long for a single pile; today, splicing is common with steel piles, though concrete piles can be spliced with mechanical and other means. Driving piles, as opposed to drilling shafts, is advantageous because the soil displaced by driving the piles compresses the surrounding soil, causing greater friction against the sides of the piles, thus increasing their load-bearing capacity. Driven piles are also considered to be "tested" for weight-bearing ability because of their method of installation.^{[citation needed]}

Foundations relying on driven piles often have groups of piles connected by a pile cap (a large concrete block into which the heads of the piles are embedded) to distribute loads that are greater than one pile can bear. Pile caps and isolated piles are typically connected with grade beams to tie the foundation elements together; lighter structural elements bear on the grade beams, while heavier elements bear directly on the pile cap.^{[citation needed]}

A monopile foundation utilizes a single, generally large-diameter, foundation structural element to support all the loads (weight, wind, etc.) of a large above-surface structure.

A large number of monopile foundations^[1] have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations.^[2] For example, the Horns Rev wind farm in the North Sea west of Denmark utilizes 80 large monopiles of 4 metres diameter sunk 25 meters deep into the seabed,^[3] while the Lynn and Inner Dowsing Wind Farm off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines, each mounted on a 4.7-metre-diameter monopile foundation in ocean depths up to 18 metres.^[4]

The typical construction process for a wind turbine subsea monopile foundation in sand includes driving a large hollow steel pile, of some 4 m in diameter with approximately 50mm thick walls, some 25 m deep into the seabed, through a 0.5 m layer of larger stone and gravel to minimize erosion around the pile. A transition piece (complete with pre-installed features such as boat-landing arrangement, cathodic protection, cable ducts for sub-marine cables, turbine tower flange, etc.) is attached to the driven pile, and the sand and water are removed from the centre of the pile and replaced with concrete. An additional layer of even larger stone, up to 0.5 m diameter, is applied to the surface of the seabed for longer-term erosion protection.^[2]

Also called caissons, drilled shafts, drilled piers, cast-in-drilled-hole piles (CIDH piles) or cast-in-situ piles, a borehole is drilled into the ground, then concrete (and often some sort of reinforcing) is placed into the borehole to form the pile. Rotary boring techniques allow larger diameter piles than any other piling method and permit pile construction through particularly dense or hard strata. Construction methods depend on the geology of the site; in particular, whether boring is to be undertaken in 'dry' ground conditions or through water-saturated strata. Casing is often used when the sides of the borehole are likely to slough off before concrete is poured.

For end-bearing piles, drilling continues until the borehole has extended a sufficient depth (socketing) into a sufficiently strong layer. Depending on site geology, this can be a rock layer, or hardpan, or other dense, strong layers. Both the diameter of the pile and the depth of the pile are highly specific to the ground conditions, loading conditions, and nature of the project. Pile depths may vary substantially across a project if the bearing layer is not level. Drilled piles can be tested using a variety of methods to verify the pile integrity during installation.

Under-reamed piles have mechanically formed enlarged bases that are as much as 6 m in diameter.^{[citation needed]} The form is that of an inverted cone and can only be formed in stable soils or rocks. The larger base diameter allows greater bearing capacity than a straight-shaft pile.

These piles are suited for expansive soils which are often subjected to seasonal moisture variations, or for loose or soft strata. They are used in normal ground condition also where economics are favorable. ^{[5][full citation needed]}

Under reamed piles foundation is used for the following soils:-

1. Under reamed piles are used in black cotton soil: This type of soil expands when it comes in contact with water and contraction occurs when water is removed. So that cracks appear in the construction done on such clay. An under reamed pile is used in the base to remove this defect.

2. Under reamed piles are used in low bearing capacity Outdated soil (filled soil)

3.Under reamed piles are used in sandy soil when water table is high.

4. Under reamed piles are used, Where lifting forces appear at the base of foundation.

An augercast pile, often known as a continuous flight augering (CFA) pile, is formed by drilling into the ground with a hollow stemmed continuous flight auger to the required depth or degree of resistance. No casing is required. A cement grout mix is then pumped down the stem of the auger. While the cement grout is pumped, the auger is slowly withdrawn, conveying the soil upward along the flights. A shaft of fluid cement grout is formed to ground level. Reinforcement can be installed. Recent innovations in addition to stringent quality control allows reinforcing cages to be placed up to the full length of a pile when required.^{[citation needed]}

Augercast piles cause minimal disturbance and are often used for noise-sensitive and environmentally-sensitive sites. Augercast piles are not generally suited for use in contaminated soils, because of expensive waste disposal costs. In cases such as these, a displacement pile (like Olivier piles) may provide the cost efficiency of an augercast pile and minimal environmental impact. In ground containing obstructions or cobbles and boulders, augercast piles are less suitable as refusal above the design pile tip elevation may be encountered.^{[citation needed]}

Small Sectional Flight Auger piling rigs can also be used for piled raft foundations. These produce the same type of pile as a Continuous Flight Auger rig but using smaller, more lightweight equipment. This piling method is fast, cost-effective and suitable for the majority of ground types.^[5][6]

In drilled pier foundations, the piers can be connected with grade beams on which the structure sits, sometimes with heavy column loads bearing directly on the piers. In some residential construction, the piers are extended above the ground level, and wood beams bearing on the piers are used to support the structure. This type of foundation results in a crawl space underneath the building in which wiring and duct work can be laid during construction or re-modelling.^[7]

In jet piling high pressure water is used to set piles.^[8] High pressure water cuts through soil with a high-pressure jet flow and allows the pile to be fitted.^[9] One advantage of Jet Piling: the water jet lubricates the pile and softens the ground.^[10] The method is in use in Norway.^[11]

Micropiles are small diameter, generally less than 300mm diameter, elements that are drilled and grouted in place.  They typically get their capacity from skin friction along the sides of the element, but can be end bearing in hard rock as well. Micropiles are usually heavily reinforced with steel comprising more than 40% of their cross section. They can be used as direct structural support or as ground reinforcement elements.  Due to their relatively high cost and the type of equipment used to install these elements, they are often used where access restrictions and or very difficult ground conditions (cobbles and boulders, construction debris, karst, environmental sensitivity) exists or to retrofit existing structures.  Occasionally, in difficult ground, they are used for new construction foundation elements. Typical applications include underpinning, bridge, transmission tower and slope stabilization projects.^{[6][12][13][14]}

The use of a tripod rig to install piles is one of the more traditional ways of forming piles. Although unit costs are generally higher than with most other forms of piling,^{[citation needed]} it has several advantages which have ensured its continued use through to the present day. The tripod system is easy and inexpensive to bring to site, making it ideal for jobs with a small number of piles.^{[clarification needed]}

Sheet piling is a form of driven piling using thin interlocking sheets of steel to obtain a continuous barrier in the ground. The main application of sheet piles is in retaining walls and cofferdams erected to enable permanent works to proceed. Normally, vibrating hammer, t-crane and crawle drilling are used to establish sheet piles.^{[citation needed]}

Soldier piles, also known as king piles or Berlin walls, are constructed of steel H sections spaced about 2 to 3 m apart and are driven or drilled prior to excavation. As the excavation proceeds, horizontal timber sheeting (lagging) is inserted behind the H pile flanges.

The horizontal earth pressures are concentrated on the soldier piles because of their relative rigidity compared to the lagging. Soil movement and subsidence is minimized by installing the lagging immediately after excavation to avoid soil loss.^{[citation needed]} Lagging can be constructed by timber, precast concrete, shotcrete and steel plates depending on spacing of the soldier piles and the type of soils.

Soldier piles are most suitable in conditions where well constructed walls will not result in subsidence such as over-consolidated clays, soils above the water table if they have some cohesion, and free draining soils which can be effectively dewatered, like sands.^{[citation needed]}

Unsuitable soils include soft clays and weak running soils that allow large movements such as loose sands. It is also not possible to extend the wall beyond the bottom of the excavation, and dewatering is often required.^{[citation needed]}

Screw piles, also called helical piers and screw foundations, have been used as foundations since the mid 19th century in screw-pile lighthouses.^{[citation needed]} Screw piles are galvanized iron pipe with helical fins that are turned into the ground by machines to the required depth. The screw distributes the load to the soil and is sized accordingly.

Suction piles are used underwater to secure floating platforms. Tubular piles are driven into the seabed (or more commonly dropped a few metres into a soft seabed) and then a pump sucks water out at the top of the tubular, pulling the pile further down.

The proportions of the pile (diameter to height) are dependent upon the soil type. Sand is difficult to penetrate but provides good holding capacity, so the height may be as short as half the diameter. Clays and muds are easy to penetrate but provide poor holding capacity, so the height may be as much as eight times the diameter. The open nature of gravel means that water would flow through the ground during installation, causing 'piping' flow (where water boils up through weaker paths through the soil). Therefore, suction piles cannot be used in gravel seabeds.^{[citation needed]}

In high latitudes where the ground is continuously frozen, adfreeze piles are used as the primary structural foundation method.

Adfreeze piles derive their strength from the bond of the frozen ground around them to the surface of the pile.^{[citation needed]}

Adfreeze pile foundations are particularly sensitive in conditions which cause the permafrost to melt. If a building is constructed improperly then it can melt the ground below, resulting in a failure of the foundation system.^{[citation needed]}

Vibrated stone columns are a ground improvement technique where columns of coarse aggregate are placed in soils with poor drainage or bearing capacity to improve the soils.^{[citation needed]}

Specific to marine structures, hospital piles (also known as gallow piles) are built to provide temporary support to marine structure components during refurbishment works. For example, when removing a river pontoon, the brow will be attached to hospital pile to support it. They are normal piles, usually with a chain or hook attachment.^{[citation needed]}

Piled walls can be drivene or bored. They provide special advantages where available working space dictates and open cut excavation not feasible. Both methods offer technically effective and offer a cost efficient temporary or permanent means of retaining the sides of bulk excavations even in water bearing strata. When used in permanent works, these walls can be designed to resist vertical loads in addition lateral load from retaining soil. Construction of both methods is the same as for foundation bearing piles. Contiguous walls are constructed with small gaps between adjacent piles. The spacing of the piles can be varied to provide suitable bending stiffness.

Secant pile walls are constructed such that space is left between alternate 'female' piles for the subsequent construction of 'male' piles.^{[clarification needed]} Construction of 'male' piles involves boring through the concrete in the 'female' piles hole in order to key 'male' piles between. The male pile is the one where steel reinforcement cages are installed, though in some cases the female piles are also reinforced.^{[citation needed]}

Secant piled walls can either be true hard/hard, hard/intermediate (firm), or hard/soft, depending on design requirements. Hard refers to structural concrete and firm or soft is usually a weaker grout mix containing bentonite.^{[citation needed]} All types of wall can be constructed as free standing cantilevers, or may be propped if space and sub-structure design permit. Where party wall agreements allow, ground anchors can be used as tie backs.

A slurry wall is a barrier built under ground using a mix of bentonite and water to prevent the flow of groundwater. A trench that would collapse due to the hydraulic pressure in the surrounding soil does not collapse as the slurry balances the hydraulic pressure.

These are essentially variations of in situ reinforcements in the form of piles (as mentioned above), blocks or larger volumes.

Cement, lime/quick lime, flyash, sludge and/or other binders (sometimes called stabilizer) are mixed into the soil to increase bearing capacity. The result is not as solid as concrete, but should be seen as an improvement of the bearing capacity of the original soil.

The technique is most often applied on clays or organic soils like peat. The mixing can be carried out by pumping the binder into the soil whilst mixing it with a device normally mounted on an excavator or by excavating the masses, mixing them separately with the binders and refilling them in the desired area. The technique can also be used on lightly contaminated masses as a means of binding contaminants, as opposed to excavating them and transporting to landfill or processing.

 

Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (American English), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (Commonwealth English), carbon-fiber-reinforced plastics, carbon-fiber reinforced-thermoplastic (CFRP, CRP, CFRTP), also known as carbon fiber, carbon composite, or just carbon, are extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastics that contain carbon fibers. CFRPs can be expensive to produce, but are commonly used wherever high strength-to-weight ratio and stiffness (rigidity) are required, such as aerospace, superstructures of ships, automotive, civil engineering, sports equipment, and an increasing number of consumer and technical applications.^[1][2][3][4]

The binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester, or nylon, are sometimes used.^[4] The properties of the final CFRP product can be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix (resin). The most common additive is silica, but other additives such as rubber and carbon nanotubes can be used.

Carbon fiber is sometimes referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP is less common, as it clashes with glass-(fiber)-reinforced polymer).

CFRP are composite materials. In this case the composite consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides its strength. The matrix is usually a thermosetting plastic, such as polyester resin, to bind the reinforcements together.^[5] Because CFRPs consist of two distinct elements, the material properties depend on these two elements.

Reinforcement gives CFRPs their strength and rigidity, measured by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRPs have directional strength properties. The properties of a CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer.^[6] The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics.^[7] The rule of mixtures for the equal strain case gives:

$\displaystyle E_c=V_mE_m+V_fE_f$

which is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented parallel to the applied load. $\displaystyle E_c$ is the total composite modulus, $\displaystyle V_m$ and $\displaystyle V_f$ are the volume fractions of the matrix and fiber respectively in the composite, and $\displaystyle E_m$ and $\displaystyle E_f$ are the elastic moduli of the matrix and fibers respectively.^[7] The other extreme case of the elastic modulus of the composite with the fibers oriented transverse to the applied load can be found using the inverse rule of mixtures for the equal stress case:^[7]

$\displaystyle E_c=\left(\frac V_mE_m+\frac V_fE_f\right)^-1$

The above equations give an upper and lower bound on the Young's modulus for CFRP and there are many other factors that influence the true value.

The fracture toughness of carbon fiber reinforced plastics is governed by multiple mechanisms:

• Debonding between the carbon fiber and polymer matrix.
• Fiber pull-out.
• Delamination between the CFRP sheets.^[8]

Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0.5% strain to failure. Although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics presents unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically.^[8] As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material and finding alternative polymer matrix. One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength.^[8] However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive.^[8]

Despite their high initial strength-to-weight ratios, a design limitation of CFRPs are their lack of a definable fatigue limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out. While steel and many other structural metals and alloys do have estimable fatigue or endurance limits, the complex failure modes of composites mean that the fatigue failure properties of CFRPs are difficult to predict and design against; however emerging research has shed light on the effects of low velocity impacts on composites.^[9] Low velocity impacts can make carbon fiber polymers susceptible to damage.^[9][10][11] As a result, when using CFRPs for critical cyclic-loading applications, engineers may need to design in considerable strength safety margins to provide suitable component reliability over its service life.

Environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While CFRPs demonstrate excellent corrosion resistance, the effect of moisture at wide ranges of temperatures can lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of CFRPs, particularly at the matrix-fiber interface.^[12] While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the moisture plasticizes the polymer matrix.^[8] This leads to significant changes in properties that are dominantly influenced by the matrix in CFRPs such as compressive, interlaminar shear, and impact properties.^[13] The epoxy matrix used for engine fan blades is designed to be impervious against jet fuel, lubrication, and rain water, and external paint on the composites parts is applied to minimize damage from ultraviolet light.^[8][14]

Carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CFRP parts are attached to aluminum or mild steel but not to stainless steel or titanium.^[15]

CFRPs are very hard to machine, and cause significant tool wear. The tool wear in CFRP machining is dependent on the fiber orientation and machining condition of the cutting process. To reduce tool wear various types of coated tools are used in machining CFRP and CFRP-metal stack.^[1]

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The primary element of CFRPs is a carbon filament; this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN), rayon, or petroleum pitch. For synthetic polymers such as PAN or rayon, the precursor is first spun into filament yarns, using chemical and mechanical processes to initially align the polymer chains in a way to enhance the final physical properties of the completed carbon fiber. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers. After drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms (carbonization), producing the final carbon fiber. The carbon fibers filament yarns may be further treated to improve handling qualities, then wound onto bobbins.^[16] From these fibers, a unidirectional sheet is created. These sheets are layered onto each other in a quasi-isotropic layup, e.g. 0°, +60°, or −60° relative to each other.

From the elementary fiber, a bidirectional woven sheet can be created, i.e. a twill with a 2/2 weave. The process by which most CFRPs are made varies, depending on the piece being created, the finish (outside gloss) required, and how many of the piece will be produced. In addition, the choice of matrix can have a profound effect on the properties of the finished composite.^[17]

Many CFRP parts are created with a single layer of carbon fabric that is backed with fiberglass.^[18] A tool called a chopper gun is used to quickly create these composite parts. Once a thin shell is created out of carbon fiber, the chopper gun cuts rolls of fiberglass into short lengths and sprays resin at the same time, so that the fiberglass and resin are mixed on the spot.^[19] The resin is either external mix, wherein the hardener and resin are sprayed separately, or internal mixed, which requires cleaning after every use. Manufacturing methods may include the following:

One method of producing CFRP parts is by layering sheets of carbon fiber cloth into a mold in the shape of the final product. The alignment and weave of the cloth fibers is chosen to optimize the strength and stiffness properties of the resulting material. The mold is then filled with epoxy and is heated or air-cured. The resulting part is very corrosion-resistant, stiff, and strong for its weight. Parts used in less critical areas are manufactured by draping cloth over a mold, with epoxy either pre-impregnated into the fibers (also known as pre-preg) or "painted" over it. High-performance parts using single molds are often vacuum-bagged and/or autoclave-cured, because even small air bubbles in the material will reduce strength. An alternative to the autoclave method is to use internal pressure via inflatable air bladders or EPS foam inside the non-cured laid-up carbon fiber.

For simple pieces of which relatively few copies are needed (one or two per day), a vacuum bag can be used. A fiberglass, carbon fiber, or aluminum mold is polished and waxed, and has a release agent applied before the fabric and resin are applied, and the vacuum is pulled and set aside to allow the piece to cure (harden). There are three ways to apply the resin to the fabric in a vacuum mold.

The first method is manual and called a wet layup, where the two-part resin is mixed and applied before being laid in the mold and placed in the bag. The other one is done by infusion, where the dry fabric and mold are placed inside the bag while the vacuum pulls the resin through a small tube into the bag, then through a tube with holes or something similar to evenly spread the resin throughout the fabric. Wire loom works perfectly for a tube that requires holes inside the bag. Both of these methods of applying resin require hand work to spread the resin evenly for a glossy finish with very small pin-holes.

A third method of constructing composite materials is known as a dry layup. Here, the carbon fiber material is already impregnated with resin (pre-preg) and is applied to the mold in a similar fashion to adhesive film. The assembly is then placed in a vacuum to cure. The dry layup method has the least amount of resin waste and can achieve lighter constructions than wet layup. Also, because larger amounts of resin are more difficult to bleed out with wet layup methods, pre-preg parts generally have fewer pinholes. Pinhole elimination with minimal resin amounts generally require the use of autoclave pressures to purge the residual gases out.

A quicker method uses a compression mold, also commonly known as carbon fiber forging. This is a two (male and female), or multi-piece mold, usually made out of aluminum or steel and more recently 3D printed plastic. The mold components are pressed together with the fabric and resin loaded into the inner cavity that ultimately becomes the desired component. The benefit is the speed of the entire process. Some car manufacturers, such as BMW, claimed to be able to cycle a new part every 80 seconds. However, this technique has a very high initial cost since the molds require CNC machining of very high precision.

For difficult or convoluted shapes, a filament winder can be used to make CFRP parts by winding filaments around a mandrel or a core.

Carbon fiber-reinforced pre-pregs and dry carbon fiber textiles require precise cutting methods to maintain material integrity and reduce defects such as fiber pull-out, delamination and fraying of the cutting edge. CNC digital cutting systems equipped with drag and oscillating are often used to cut carbon fiber pre-pregs, and rotating knives are commonly used to process carbon fiber fabrics. Ultrasonic cutting is another method to cut CFRP pre-pregs and is particularly effective in reducing delamination by minimizing mechanical stress during the cutting process. Waterjet cutting can be the preferred method for thicker and multilayered polymer composites.^[20]

Applications for CFRPs include the following:

The Airbus A350 XWB is 53% CFRP^[21] including wing spars and fuselage components, overtaking the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for the aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP at 50%.^[22] It was one of the first commercial aircraft to have wing spars made from composites. The Airbus A380 was one of the first commercial airliners to have a central wing-box made of CFRP and the first with a smoothly contoured wing cross-section instead of partitioning it span-wise into sections. This flowing, continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency.^{[citation needed]} Moreover, the trailing edge, along with the rear bulkhead, empennage, and un-pressurised fuselage are made of CFRP.^[23]

However, delays have pushed order delivery dates back because of manufacturing problems. Many aircraft that use CFRPs have experienced delays with delivery dates due to the relatively new processes used to make CFRP components, whereas metallic structures are better understood. A recurrent problem is the monitoring of structural ageing, for which new methods are required, due to the unusual multi-material and anisotropic^[24][25][26] nature of CFRPs.^[27]

In 1968 a Hyfil carbon-fiber fan assembly was in service on the Rolls-Royce Conways of the Vickers VC10s operated by BOAC.^[28]

Specialist aircraft designers and manufacturers Scaled Composites have made extensive use of CFRPs throughout their design range, including the first private crewed spacecraft Spaceship One. CFRPs are widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of their high strength-to-weight ratio.

Airbus then moved to adopt CFRTP, because it can be reshaped and reprocessed after forming, can be manufactured faster, has higher impact resistance, is recyclable and remoldable, and has lower processing costs.^[29]

CFRPs are extensively used in high-end automobile racing.^[30] The high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the "safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars. The first carbon fiber monocoque chassis was introduced in Formula One by McLaren in the 1981 season. It was designed by John Barnard and was widely copied in the following seasons by other F1 teams due to the extra rigidity provided to the chassis of the cars.^[31]

Many supercars over the past few decades have incorporated CFRPs extensively in their manufacture, using it for their monocoque chassis as well as other components.^[32] As far back as 1971, the Citroën SM offered optional lightweight carbon fiber wheels.^[33][34]

Use of the material has been more readily adopted by low-volume manufacturers who used it primarily for creating body-panels for some of their high-end cars due to its increased strength and decreased weight compared with the glass-reinforced polymer they used for the majority of their products.